Shellfish farms specifically designed to culture littleneck clams exist in Alaska, while harvests in Washington,Oregon and California are the result of wild littleneck clam seed setting among manila clam beds (Downey, pers. comm. 2004). While much of the U.S. West Coast is farming manila clams, Alaska prohibits farming of non-native clams (Timothy, pers. comm. 2004).

In Alaska, littleneck clam seed is raised in hatcheries starting in tanks for about 25 weeks. The nursery phase takes about 12 weeks, and occurs in a floating system through which seawater is pumped. (Brooks et al. 2001) Littleneck clam seed is then planted and raised in bottom culture systems until the harvest (Downey 2004).

Stocking densities vary considerably depending on the environment and whether the seed is planted or naturally set. Density is approximately 20/ft2 where seed has been planted and predation nets are in place (Timothy, pers. comm. 2004). All of the farms in Alaska are currently on Prince of Wales Island, and are small, ranging in size from about 0.2 acres to 10 acres. According to Jackie Timothy of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (pers. comm. 2004), so much undeveloped coastland still remains in Alaska that there have been virtually no adverse effects from the farms. In Alaska, 58 farms on 237 acres of submerged lands were used for all shellfish production in 2003 (Timothy and Petree 2004). Stocking density of littlenecks outside of Alaska is not really an issue, as littlenecks are not directly planted, but are harvested along with other species (Downey, pers. comm. 2004).

In Alaska, where all true littleneck farms are located (in contrast to California, Washington and Oregon where wild littlenecks are caught), managers evaluate areas for potential for farming, considering the potential conflicts with existing, pending, and traditional uses, impacts to cultural/historical areas, compatibility with affected land management plans, coastal district plans and adjacent upland owner management objectives, potential impacts to interests protected under the Public Trust Doctrine, cumulative impacts of concentrating aquatic farmsites in a specific area, and accessibility. Applications for farms are accepted by the state for review every other year from January through April, and are reviewed by ADFG, DNR, DEC, US Army Corps of Engineers, coastal districts, and the public (Timothy and Petree 2004). Washington state also has controls over submerged land leases.

Growers collect the clams with hand shovels and forks and place them into buckets. The government in Alaska prohibits mechanical harvesting of clams due to the destructive impacts (Agosti 2002; Timothy, pers. comm. 2004). In Oregon, British Columbia, and California, harvests are also done only by hand, rake, shovel, garden hand fork, or trowel (Reilly 2001; McRae 1995; DFO 1999), while in Washington both raking and mechanical harvesting are utilized (WDFW 2004).

During the hatchery and nursery stage, Alaskan growers may add algae to seawater as feed; however, during the bulk of the animal's life, seawater provides the sole source of nourishment (Downey, pers. comm. 2004).

No feed is used.

No feed is used.

No feed is used.

Treatment of effluent is not necessary because supplemental feed is not used to farm littleneck clams (Downey, pers. comm. 2004).

Clams improve water quality by filtering out algae and other plankton, reducing levels of chlorophyll, nutrients and suspended solids.

Antibiotics and antimicrobial compounds are not used in the farming of Littleneck clams (Agosti 2002).

No controls are necessary for effluent from Littleneck clam operations, as effluent is not generated. However, water quality is monitored by the National Shellfish Sanitation Program, and contamination from PSP, brown tides, or bacterial outbreak leads to beach closures (Downey, pers. comm. 2004).

Farming this species does not create waste.

Littleneck clams are farmed within their native range from California to Alaska. Farming them poses little threat to native populations (Timothy, pers. comm. 2004; Downey, pers. comm. 2004).

This species is a native mollusc.

The Alaskan hatchery replaces its broodstock from the wild every couple years. Broodstock is only taken from clams occurring naturally in the regions where they are farmed (Agosti 2002), thus preventing a compromise of the genetic integrity of the wild populations when the clams are planted. In Washington, Oregon, and California, only wild set is used, so there are no problems with escape or genetic integrity.

Strong controls exist for Alaska's Qutekcak hatchery. They collect the broodstock from the area where the clams will be planted, and test it for disease (Timothy, pers. comm. 2004). Permits are required for the acquisition and transport of broodstock (Timothy and Petree 2004). The Alaska Department of Health strictly monitors water quality in the areas where clams are farmed (Downey 2004). The Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Commission exists to standardize guidelines for shellfish health and coordinate regulation with federal and state governments, the academic community, and shellfish industry interests. There is also strong coordination among the state agencies on the West coast to prevent the introduction of invasive species and disease (Elston, pers. comm.2004). There have not yet been any major disease problems with Littleneck clams other than the ubiquitous Vibrio species (Agosti 2002).

The Alaska Department of Fish and Game monitors the broodstock and exported seed for disease. Permits are required for the acquisition and transport of broodstock (Timothy and Petree 2004). The Alaska Department of Health strictly monitors water quality (Downey 2004). The Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Commission exists to standardize guidelines for shellfish health and coordinate regulation with federal and state governments and the academic and shellfish industry interests. There is strong coordination between the state agencies on the West coast to prevent the introduction of invasive species and disease (Elston, pers. comm.2004). There have as yet been no major disease problems with Littleneck clams.

The Qutekcak hatchery, where all of the seed in Alaska is produced, collects the broodstock from the area where the clams will be planted, and tests it for disease (Timothy, pers. comm. 2004).

Littleneck clam farms are located in protected intertidal areas (Timothy, pers. comm. 2004).

Bird depredation permits are not issued to Alaskan shellfish farms. Netting is the only form of deterrent that is used. It is staked into the ground. The need to use predator netting varies greatly by location, and there have been no reports of entanglements in Alaska (Timothy, pers. comm. 2004).

Seed is either hatchery seed in Alaska, or naturally setting wild seed in Washington and Oregon (Downey, pers. comm. 2004).

In Alaska, where most of the true farms exist, there are very strict state controls over the leasing process. Farms cannot be located in any number of ecologically significant areas including eelgrass habitat, salmon runs, essential fish habitat, and bird rookeries (Agosti 2002).